(2010) Excess costs and utilization associated with methicillin resistance for patients with Staphylococcus aureus infection. Maragakis LL, Perencevich EN, Cosgrove SE (2008) Clinical and economic burden of antimicrobial resistance. Wegener HC (2012) Antibiotic resistance-Linking human and animal health, In: Improving food safety through a One Health approach, Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 331–349.Ĭenters for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013) Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2013, U.S, Department of Health and Human Services, CS239559-B. (2012) A review of antibiotic use in food animals: perspective, policy, and potential. Tacconelli E (2009) Antimicrobial use: risk driver of multidrug resistant microorganisms in healthcare settings. (2008) Trends in antibacterial use in US academic health centers: 2002 to 2006. Pakyz AL, MacDougall C, Oinonen M, et al. Goossens H (2009) Antibiotic consumption and link to resistance. Yu VL (2011) Guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia and health-care-associated pneumonia: a vulnerability, a pitfall, and a fatal flaw. Griffith M, Postelnick M, Scheetz M (2012) Antimicrobial stewardship programs: methods of operation and suggested outcomes. World Health Organization (2015) Global action plan on antimicrobial resistance. World Health Organization (2014) World Health Statistics 2014. An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria. Understanding more about these mechanisms should hopefully lead to better treatment options for infective diseases, and development of antimicrobial drugs that can withstand the microorganisms attempts to become resistant.Ĭitation: Wanda C Reygaert. These mechanisms may be native to the microorganisms, or acquired from other microorganisms. The main mechanisms of resistance are: limiting uptake of a drug, modification of a drug target, inactivation of a drug, and active efflux of a drug. Apparently most pathogenic microorganisms have the capability of developing resistance to at least some antimicrobial agents. It was soon discovered however, that the microorganisms were capable of developing resistance to any of the drugs that were used. When antibiotics were first introduced in the 1900’s, it was thought that we had won the war against microorganisms. Resistance to antimicrobial agents has become a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide.
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